<!–^~^33|right|Les ArËnes in NÓmes in Provence were built in the 1st century AD^~^–>The Greeks first tried to settle in Celtic Gaul and managed to establish a small colony in Marseille in 600 BC. Then it was the turn of the Romans, lead by Julius Caesar, who entirely invaded Gaul during the Gallic Wars (58-51 BC). The Romans brought unity and peace for two centuries of Pax Romana during which agriculture, cattle-breeding and urban development were greatly improved.

<!–^~^34|left|The Pont du Gard, a Roman aqueduct built in 19 BC in Provence^~^–>During the 2nd century AC, Romans brought Christianity into Gaul and by the third century, the power of the Roman Empire had begun its decline. The 4th century started with Barbarian invaders from the East such as the Franks, the Vandals and the Visigoths. Clovis, King of the Franks, converted to christianity and his power brought unity to Gaul, starting the Merovingian dynasty.

58-51 BC
Caesar’s Gallic Wars

52 BC
Lutetia is built, the future Paris

43 AD
Lugdunum (Lyon) becomes the capital of the Gauls

2nd century AD
Romans bring Christianity to Gaul

485-511
Reign of Clovis I, Merovingian King of the Franks

Also See:

Introduction

20th Century

]]> http://www.france.com/blog/antiquity-2/feed/ 0 http://www.france.com/blog/middle-ages/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=middle-ages http://www.france.com/blog/middle-ages/#comments Thu, 15 Dec 2011 14:41:21 +0000 France.com http://blog.france.com/blog/middle-ages/ <!–^~^35|left|The Medieval city of Carcassone^~^–>Charles Martel, the first leader of the Carolingian dynasty, initiated the expansion of the Franks’ kingdom and stopped the Muslim advance from Spain in 732. Charlemagne (742-814) continued this expansion and conquered most of Germany and Italy to reunite most of the former Roman Empire. Shortly after his death, however, his kingdom was divided under the pressure of invaders such as the Normans (Vikings) and the Magyars (Hungarians).

<!–^~^36|right|Hugues Capet^~^–>Towards the end of the first millenium, France consisted of numerous feudal Lordships. The Carolingian dynasty died out in 987 when Hugues Capet was elected to the throne of France by the Lords, starting the Capetian Dynasty. The early Capetian kings had very limited power over the independent Lords. In 1066, William, Duke of Normandy invaded England while the first Crusades started in 1095.

<!–^~^37|left|Eleanor of Aquitaine^~^–>Despite the mariage of Eleanor of Aquitaine to Henry II of England which yielded most of the western part of France to the British Crown, the Capetians continued to centralize the Lordships under their control. Philippe IV (the Fair), even pressured sucessors of Pope Boniface VIII to move the papal court to Avignon in 1309. After the death of the last Capetian king Charles IV, Edward III of England claimed the French Throne and started the Hundred Years War in 1337. Thanks to the courage of a French peasant girl, Joan of Arc, Charles VIII emerged victorious in the war and drove the English back to Calais.

Dateline:

637
Dagobert I, last Mervingian king

732
Charles Martel stops Arab invasion

800
Charlemagne crowned Holy Roman Emperor

910
Foundation of the monastery of Cluny.

987
Hugue Capet start Capetian dynasty

1096
1st Crusade

1066
William of Normandy starts invading England

1120
St Denis Cathedral is rebuilt: birth of Gothic architecture.

11453
English out of France, end of Hundred Years’ War

Also See:

Introduction

Prehistory

19th Century

20th Century

<!–^~^42|left|Francois I^~^–>In the early 16th century, after a series of Italian wars, Francois I strengthened the French Crown and welcomed to France many Italian artists and designers such as Leonardo da Vinci. Their influence assured the success of the Renaissance style characterized by enlarged doors and windows, the great sophistications of the interiors.

<!–^~^43|right|da Vinci’s Mona Lisa^~^–>The Loire Valley Chateaus (Chambord) and Francois I’s Chateau of Fontainebleau are perfect examples of the Renaissance style, which combined defensive fortresses with luxurious palaces.

<!–^~^41|left|Diane de Poitier, Favorite of Henri II^~^–>Between 1562 and 1598, the increasse in the number of the Huguenots (Protestants) led to the Wars of Religion. Catherine de Medici ordered the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre of hundreds of Protestants. In 1589, Henri IV, a target of the massacre, becomes the first Bourbon king of France and astutely converted to Catholism. He ended the Wars of Religion by enacting the Edict of Nantes, which guaranteed religious and political rights to the Huguenots.

Dateline:

1494-1559
Italian Wars: France and Austria fight over Italian territories

1515
FranÁois I crowned King

1519
Leonardo da Vinci dies in the arms of FranÁois I

1562-98
The Wars of Religion: Catholics fight Protestants

1572
Massacre of Protestants on St. Bartholomew’s eve in Paris

1589-1593
Henri IV becomes 1st Bourbon King and converts to Catholicism, ending Wars of Religion

1608
Founding of Quebec

Also See:

Introduction

]]> http://www.france.com/blog/renaissance-2/feed/ 0 http://www.france.com/blog/grand-sia%c6%92ae%c2%b9cle/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=grand-sia%25c6%2592ae%25c2%25b9cle http://www.france.com/blog/grand-sia%c6%92ae%c2%b9cle/#comments Thu, 15 Dec 2011 14:41:21 +0000 France.com http://blog.france.com/blog/grand-sia%c6%92ae%c2%b9cle/

<!–^~^44|left|Louis XIV^~^–>The 17th century was marked by a period of exeptional power and glamour for the French Monarchy. Starting with King Louis XIII and the Cardinal Richelieu who together transformed the feudal French Monarchy to an Absolute Monarchy, by controlling the opposition of the “Grands” (the Lords) and the growing power of the Protestant (siege of La Rochelle, 1628). Mazarin, Louis XIV’s regent, ended the popular revolts of La Fronde. Louis XIV, in turn, managed to keep all the Princes and Lords at his court in Versailles, to better control and display his glorious power.

<!–^~^45|right|Versailles, Louis XIV Royal Residence^~^–>Louis XIV, also known as the Sun King, was the most powerful and opulent monarch Europe had seen since the Roman Empire. Political brillance in this period was matched only by the genius of the writers, architects and musicians generously promoted by the royal court. Alas, all of this exuberance, including Louis XIV’s endless wars, had a cost which was to be paid by the entire nation, largely impoverished towards the end of his reign. The growing resentment of the Bourgeoisie, who demanded political rights more in keeping with their expanding power and wealth, would prove to be a political challenge to the king’s successors.

Dateline:

1608
Founding of Quebec

1617
Louis XIII crowned at the age of 17

1624
Cardinal Richelieu becomes principal minister

1643-1715
Louis XIV becomes king with Mazarin as principal minister

1682
Royal court moves to Versailles

1715
Louis XIV dies and Louis XV accedes

]]> http://www.france.com/blog/grand-sia%c6%92ae%c2%b9cle/feed/ 0 http://www.france.com/blog/revolution-era/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=revolution-era http://www.france.com/blog/revolution-era/#comments Thu, 15 Dec 2011 14:41:21 +0000 France.com http://blog.france.com/blog/revolution-era/ <!–^~^46|left|Diderot published his Encyclopedia in 1751^~^–>The 18th century’s Enlightment brought thinkers such as Voltaire and Rousseau to struggle against the principles of the old regime and absolutism. In 1789, the state’s financial crisis brought social turmoil, triggering the Revolution. On July 14th, a Parisian mob revolted and stormed the Bastille prison, symbol of the old regime. A few weeks later, the revolutionaries enacted the Declaration of the Rights of Man which embodied the principles of LibertÈ, EgalitÈ, and FraternitÈ (Freedom, Equality, Fraternity) and had far reaching consequences for all the other European monarchies.

During the following decade France saw a succession of rivaling regimes which guillotined Louis XVI and scores of moderates as well as radicals at the Place de la Revolution, now known as Place de la Concorde. The Terror regime of Robespierre and his Committee of Public Safety brought turmoil, confusion and anarchy in France.

Dateline:

1762
Rousseau’s Social contract

1774
Louis XVI becomes King

1778-83
The Kingdom supports the American Revolution

1789
French Revolution, storming of La Bastille

1792
Louis XVI overthrown

1794
Robespierre overthrown and end of the Terror

Also See:

Introduction

<!–^~^47|left|Napoleon I^~^–><!–^~^48|right|Through his reign, Napoleon I remained a military genius^~^–>The Revolution ends in 1799 when Napoleon Bonaparte entered Paris and was crowned First Consul at the age of thirty. A brilliant politician and a military genius, he took the title of emperor Napoleon I in 1804. After establishing a powerful central administration and a strong code of law, he started numerous military campaigns which almost gave him the control of the entire European continent. First defeated in Russia in 1812 and then in Waterloo in 1815, he was replaced by Louis XVIII.

Louis XVIII’s constitutional monarchy was overthrown under Charles X, whose conservatism was a reminiscence of the old regime and lead to the July Revolution of 1830. The following July Monarchy, had an elected King, Louis Philippe, (the Duke of Orleans). He ruled France for 18 years of stable prosperity. In 1848, Louis Napoleon, nephew of Napoleon I, was elected the first president of the Second Republic. In 1852, he was proclaimed Emperor Napoleon III by national plebiscite. It was he who commissioned Baron Haussman to redesign Paris and started the French industrial revolution.

Dateline:

1799
General Bonaparte enters Paris to restore calm and unity

1804
Bonaparte crowns himself Emperor Napoleon I

1805-11
Naopleonic wars expand his Empire

1815
Napoleon is defeated at Waterloo

1830-1848
Reign of Louis Philippe

1852
Napoleon I’s nephew crowned as Emperor Napoleon III

Also See:

Introduction 

Prehistory

19th Century

20th Century

<!–^~^49|left|Napoleon III^~^–><!–^~^50|right|Eiffel’s controversial structure at the Universal Exhibition of 1889^~^–>In 1870, the Franco-Prussian war erupted, Paris fell to the Germans and France lost the Alsace and Lorraine regions. Following the defeat, Napoleon III was exiled and France’s Third Republic marked the definite end of centuries of monarchy.

The industrial expansion was not slowed by the war and continued at a fast pace. To commemorate the centenial of the French Revolution, the Eiffel Tower was constructed during the Universal Exhibition of 1889. Simultaneously, the cultural and artistic scene thrived and evolved with the Impressionists, the Art Nouveau style, the novelist Flaubert and the satirist Zola.

Dateline:

1853
Haussman redesigns Paris

1870-71
Franco-Prussian War

1871
Third Republic

1889
Eiffel Tower built

1895
First movie by the Lumieres brothers

1898-1906
The Dreyffus Affair – antisemitic French army

Also See:

Introduction 

Prehistory

Napoleonic Era

20th Century

<!–^~^51|left|Art nouveau metro entrance designed by Guimard^~^–>The First World War erupted in 1914 in northeast France and after two years of German victories, fell into the horrors of trench warfare. The United States entered the war in 1917 and helped France to victory. The Allies demanded generous restitutions and payments from the Germans, who resented the humiliation for years, and was one of the factors which sparked WWII.

Despite the devastation of the war, the Entre Guerres (Between Wars) period allowed France to hold a leading role in the avant garde movement. From Paris to the Riviera, France attracted experimental artists, musicians, filmmakers and musicians from all over the world.

In 1940, the Germans invaded Paris and occupied the north and west parts of France until 1944. The rest of the country was under the authority of the puppet Government of Vichy led by Marshal Petain. Simultaneously, General Charles de Gaulle was organizing the Resistance movement of the Free France from London. Soon after the American, British and Canadian military invasion on the Normandy Beaches on June 6, 1944, de Gaulle entered Paris to head the new government of the Fourth Republic.

The postwar years deeply changed French society: consumerism was born, the service sector rapidly expanded, and high-tech national projects were successfully launched (Concorde, TGV…). Meanwhile, in the 50′s and 60′s, France had difficulty in coping with the claim to independence of its African and Asian colonies and with the liberalization of its society, leading to wars in Algeria, Indochina (Vietnam) and the violent student revolts of 1968.

Dateline:

1914-18
World War I

1929-39
The Depression

1936-38
The Popular Front’s social programs

1939
France declares war vs. Germany

1940
Paris falls, Vichy’s governement formed

1944-45
D-Day and victory of the Allies and Fourth Republic led by de Gaulle

1946-54
War in Indochina

1954-58
War of Algeria

1958
De Gaulle initiates Fifth Republic

1968
General strikes and students riots in Paris

Also See:

Introduction

Prehistory

Antiquity

Middle Ages

Renaissance

Grand SiËcle

Revolution Era

Napoleonic Era

19th Century

The Storming of the Bastille, A Watershed in French History
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen
The Marseillaise, A National Anthem Rife with Controversy
The French National Flag, Three Colors that Unite
Versailles, Capital of France for Over a Century

This month, on the 14th of July, the French will celebrate their FÍte Nationale or Bastille Day, as it is known in English-speaking countries. It commemorates the storming of a Paris royal fortressññthe Bastilleññon July 14, 1789, a date of great historical significance as it marks the transition from an absolute monarchy to a republican regime.

[img]93|left|Bastille Day celebration[/img]Today, the festivities include a traditional military parade down the Champs-ElysÈes Avenue in Paris, a meticulously planned event attended by the French President, the Premier and his Cabinet, members of the armed forces and foreign dignitaries. A different twist has been given to celebrations by President Chirac, who since his election has invited young people from all over France to attend the post-parade reception in the garden of the ElysÈe Palace. In the evening, dancing and fireworks displays are held in every town and village throughout the land. The day is also celebrated in French embassies and consulates all over the world with receptions and garden parties.

The Storming of the Bastille, A Watershed in French History

[img]87|left|Bastille[/img]During the first 6 months of 1789, the people of France, faced with an overbearing regime, crushing taxes and successive poor harvests, were dreading food shortages and bankruptcies. Aware of the dangerous mood of the country, on July 11, King Louis XVI decided to hear the citizen’s complaints and convened the Etats GÈnÈraux, a council composed only of the Kingís vassals. The legislative body was immediately transformed into the AssemblÈe Nationale to include representatives of the people. To calm the unrest, the King dismissed his extremely unpopular Finance Minister, Jacques Necker (only to call him back to service five days later). However, Paris remained in a state of high agitation. On July 14, a crowd led by a certain Pierre Hulin, who was in charge of Queen Marie-Antoinetteís laundry, seized 28,000 guns and 20 canons from a royal armory and marched towards the Bastille, a gargantuan fortress erected in 1369 which was serving as jail. Rumors of an attack had been spreading since the previous week and that day 100 Bastille guards had left their duties out of fear. The mob thus easily marched into the fortress and, after a four-hour round of firing, captured and killed its Governor and soldiers. Casualties among the attackers were estimated at 100 men. The seven prisoners jailed at the time (four forgers, two mental patients and one aristocrat convicted of incest) were liberated and the besiegers marched towards City Hall, rioting and looting along the way.

[img]97|left|La Fayette[/img]In the months that followed, General de La Fayette (of American Revolutionary War fame) ordered the Bastilleís demolition and the building was razed to the ground. Today, stones from its foundation can still be seen in the subway station beneath the Place de la Bastille, while a model of the Bastille and a painting showing its demolition are part of the collection of the MusÈe Carnavalet, the museum of the history of Paris (www.paris-org/musees/carnavalet).

[img]96|right|George Washington[/img]It is most interesting that two keys to the fortress made their way to Alexandria, VA. In March 1790, La Fayette presented the key to the west portal to George Washington, under whom he had served in the American Revolutionary War. The accompanying note explained: ìLet meÖÖpresent you with the main key of the fortress of despotism. It is a tribute which I owe, as a son to my adoptive father, as an aide-de-camp to my General, as a missionary of liberty to its patriarch.î After being displayed in the Presidential Mansion, the key now hangs in the hall of Mount Vernon. A smaller key is on display at the nearby George Washington Masonic National Memorial, also a present of La Fayette, an honorary member of that lodge.

A year later, the first anniversary of the insurrection was celebrated with great pomp but the commemoration was abandoned in subsequent years. In July 1880, the Parliament passed a law naming July 14 as the national holiday of the French Republic. From the outset, emphasis has been on the patriotic and military character of the event, a fact that was especially noticeable on Bastille Day in 1919 and again in 1945 when great victory celebrations and civic rejoicing were in order.

In 1989, the bicentennial of this pivotal event was marked by a gala nighttime parade attended by numerous foreign heads of state. A new opera house known as the OpÈra Bastille was also inaugurated in the Bastille district of Paris. Its opening proved to be the springboard for a vibrant redevelopment of the area, which is now one of the trendiest sections of the French capital (www.paris-touristoffice.com).

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen

[img]98|left|Declaration des Droits de l’Homme[/img]The fall of the Bastille definitely signaled the dawn of a new era and the launch of new aspirations and values that were outlined by 18th-century philosophers and authors such Locke, Voltaire, Montesquieu and Rousseau. A month after the event, these principles were incorporated into a document that was voted into existence as the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, the founding text of the French Republic. The document includes a preamble and 17 articles that chart principles held to be inherent to the individual and the Nation. It spells out such ìnatural and indefeasibleî rights as liberty, ownership, safety and the right to resist oppression. It also recognizes equality before the law and asserts the principle of the separation of powers.

Inspired by the American Declaration of Independence of 1776, the text is still at the very roots of French institutions and was explicitly referred to in the Constitutions of 1852, 1946 and 1958. During the 19th century, it influenced similar documents in several European and Latin American countries and, more recently, the European Convention on Human Rights signed in Rome in 1950.

The Marseillaise, A National Anthem Rife with Controversy

Contrary to its name, the French national anthem was not created in Marseilles but in Strasbourg. In 1792, the Mayor of that Alsatian city wanted a battle march for the soldiers leaving for the front following the French declaration of war on Austria. Composed in one night, it is the work of Claude Rouget de Lisle, a 32-year old captain in the corps of engineers and an amateur musician. Named the ìBattle Song of the Army of the Rhineî, it was immediately hailed as a triumph. From Strasbourg the hymn traveled south and was played at a patriotic banquet in Marseilles, where printed copies were given to the volunteers that were leaving to join the revolutionary forces in P
aris. When the people of Paris witnessed the arrival of the southern fighters marching to its beat, they dubbed it ìla Marseillaiseî. The composition’s fortunes rose and fell with the tempestuous events in France at the time: it quickly gained acceptance and was declared a national anthem on July 14, 1795. Ironically, Rouget de Lisle, himself a royalist, refused to take the oath of allegiance to the new Constitution and so was imprisoned and barely escaped the guillotine. His hometown of Lons-le-Saunier, in Eastern France(www.franche-comte.org) honored him with a statue designed by Bartholdi, the sculptor of the Statue of Liberty, and the opening of his birthplace as a museum. A few years later the anthem fell out of favor with NapolÈon and King Louis XVIII, who banned it because of its revolutionary association. It was authorized again during the Revolution of 1830, when Hector Berlioz provided a new orchestration. Outlawed again by NapolÈon III, it was reinstated in 1879 by the Third Republic, whose Ministry of War approved the ìofficial versionî, following the recommendations of a specially appointed commission.

In fact, the Marseillaise continues to provoke controversy. There has been considerable confusion on the authorship of the music since early editions were published anonymously. Today, only three of the seven original verses are sung, and even then, some people are offended by a text that demands citizens to ìdrench our fields with tainted bloodî or labels the enemy as ìferocious soldiersÖ who slaughter our sons and wivesî. In an era of political correctness, some French citizens want to soften the national anthem. In the wake of the opening ceremony of the 1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville, when a very young girl in local dress sang a soaring Marseillaise a capella, committees were formed and alternate terms were proposed to muffle the glorification of bloodshed. But most of the French oppose any change, a fact that President Giscard díEstaing had already found out in the 1970s when he ordered a slower tempo Marseillaise. In 1979, the late singer and composer Serge Gainsbourg released ìAux Armes Etceteraî, which parodied the Marseillaiseís jingoistic overtones to a reggae beat. The outcry that followed included calling Gainsbourg a ìwalking pollutionî and he was forced to sing it without musicians. In 1981, when the original manuscript came to auction, Gainsbourg made the highest bid to purchase the anthem.

The French National Flag, Three Colors that Unite

[img]91|left|French Flag[/img]It might be said that the flag of France began life as an advertising statement: in the early days of the Revolution, militias adopted a two-color rallying cockade of blue and red, the traditional colors of Paris. In July 1789, La Fayette ordered the addition of the white, the color of the French royalty, thus giving birth to the ìtricolorî flag, which King Louis XVI was ordered to fly three days after the fall of the Bastille. A February 1794 law established it as the national flag, with the stipulation that the blue should be positioned nearest to the mast.

Except during the Restoration era when Louis XVIII briefly regained the throne, it has been the emblem of France ever since. The Constitutions of 1946 an 1958 (Article II) confirm the ìblue, white and redî as the French national flag.

Versailles, Capital of France for Over a Century

[img]89|left|Chateau de Versailles[/img]First erected as a hunting lodge by King Louis XIII, the Palace of Versailles and its magnificent gardens were built by his son, King Louis XIV. Architects Le Vau and then Mansart built the ch‚teau, using Lebrun for the paintings and decorations and Le NÙtre for the gardens in the 2,500-acre park. In fact, Le NÙtre did not stop at designing the gardens and fountains; he also drew up plans for the surrounding town, located 15 miles from Paris.

In 1682, the Court settled in Versailles, making it the seat of government and the capital of France.

[img]88|right|Louis XVI[/img]It was in Versailles that King Louis XVI, upon learning of the fall of the Bastille, was reported to have asked an aide: îIs this a revolt?î The reply: ìNo, Sire, it is a revolutionî, forecast the revolutionaries’ next move: they marched to Versailles and took the royal family with them back to Paris. Most of the palaceís furnishings were auctioned off during the Revolution, and the royal city was briefly renamed ìBerceau de la LibertÈî (Cradle of Liberty).

In 1837, to save the buildings from falling into a state of disrepair, Versailles was made into a history museum ìto all the Glories of France." In the 20th century, considerable efforts have been made to restore it to its former grandeur, thanks in part to the generosity of American patrons such as the Rockefeller family and Barbara Hutton. In 1979, Versaillesí buildings and gardens were included in the newly created Register of Historic Monuments.

The city has given its name to two important treaties. In September 1783, the U.S., Great Britain, France and Spain signed the document that ended the American War of Independence. Over a century later, President Woodrow Wilson negotiated the conditions of ìThe Treaty of Peace between the Allied Powers and Germanyî to end WW1. The ceremonial signing of the treaty took place in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace in June 1919.

Today, with 500 rooms open to the public (out of the original 1,300), the Versailles Palace is the third most visited site in France, after the Eiffel Tower and the Louvre Museum. (www.chateauversailles.fr/en/)

(Reported by Fanny leJemtel Hostie, a writer specializing in tourism and economic development issues in France and the United States.) ]]> http://www.france.com/blog/bastille-day/feed/ 0 http://www.france.com/blog/prehistory-2/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=prehistory-2 http://www.france.com/blog/prehistory-2/#comments Thu, 15 Dec 2011 14:41:21 +0000 France.com http://blog.france.com/blog/prehistory/

<!–^~^31|left|First form of French Art: over 12,000 years old!^~^–>The first humans found in France, known as Homo Erectus, are believed to have lived around 950,000 B.C.

<!–^~^32|right|Fact:There are over 4,000 Dolmen (prehistoric sepultures) in France^~^–>At the end of the ice age, around 10,000 B.C., Neanderthal men evolved slowly towards the more settled Neolithic civilizations (4,000-2,500 B.C.). People began to cultivate crops and settle herds, villages started to appear (many villages of today still occupy the same locations as those started then).

The Celts, emerging from Central Europe, settled in Germany and Gaul as early as 2500 B.C. They started to work with iron to make tools and weapons, and lived in well organized societies until 125 B.C., when the Roman Empire began its in the South of France.

950,000- 80,000 B.C. (400,000 B.C. Discovery of Fire)
Homo Erectus